92. As in the other Berar Districts the great cultivating caste of the Kunbis preponderates; they number 227,000 or an average of more than one in every three of the population. Next in numerical importance are the Mahars, who number 70,000 or 11 per cent. of the population, and the Malis with 47,000 or 8 per cent. The Malis are an important cultivating caste while the Mahars are chiefly employed as agricultural labourers or on menial posts and as village watchmen; the weaving of coarse cotton cloth is also a speciality of the caste. Other castes strongly represented in the District are Brahmans (19,000), Dhangars (18,000), Wanis (15,000), Wanjaris (13,000), Rajputs (13,000), Telis (13,000) and Mangs (11.500). The Brahmans occupy the highest social position; they hold high Government appointments and are also largely represented among the village accountants. The Dhangars follow their traditional occupation of tending sheep and are also engaged in agriculture. The Wanis are in a small way the chief traders and moneylenders, and in their latter capacity they have obtained a hold over much valuable land. The Wanjaris, whatever their origin may have been, have now settled down to agriculture, and it is probable that the bulk of the Rajputs and Telis are likewise engaged. The Mangs are the well-known menial caste. The Kolis (9000), a caste of somewhat doubtful origin, have also taken to agriculture. The village servant and artisan castes are represented by the Mhalis (7500), Chambhars (8000), Sonars (6000), Sutars (6000), Shimpis (4500), Dhobis (4000), Rangaris (3500), Kumbhars (4000), Lohars (2800), and Dohors (2500). The Baris (6ooo) are the pan cultivators, and the Marathas (6000) follow a variety of occupations. The Banjaras (4000) are the remnants of the old caste of carriers whom the advent of the railway has gradually driven to other pursuits.

95. The Sutar, or carpenter, is sometimes considered superior to the worker in brass or copper the Lohar, with whom the Jirayat is on a par, is the lowest of the large artisan castes. The weavers and dyers rank next, Hatgars, or Bangi Dhangars, being however a higher caste than other Dhangars. Then follow the remaining artisan castes, the Beldar, Kumbhar and Panchal. The Beldars are a mixed race; their name means the mattock-workers; their position is therefore questionable, and varies from part to part. Some Beldars are said to be remnants of Pindaris. The Kumbhars, or potters, are a caste of long standing in the land, who have probably sunk lower at each invasion. The worship of the potter's wheel, and the invocation of a potter as a layer of ghosts, indicate a feeling which can scarcely be of recent origin. Salivahan, the legendary founder of the Maratha nation, was, according to some accounts, a Kumbhar. ' His mother,' says a legend quoted by Grant Duff, was ' the virgin daughter of a Brahman, who becoming pregnant by a snake of a sacred kind by a man of the Nagvansi race) was in consequence supposed to be disgraced, and was driven from her father's threshold; but she was received into the house of a potter, by whom she was protected.' The Panchals and Ghisadis are rough ironsmiths; they owe their low social rank to their poverty and vagrant habits. The Pathrats also belong to the same social stratum: they are a poor people: their lowly position shows that stone-dressing is not so honourable an occupation as metal-working or carpentry. The Kalal owes his low rank to his reprehensible calling: a priest may not eat the food of one who sells fermented liquors: drinking is one of the six faults which bring infamy on married women; and even eating what has been brought in the same basket with spirituous liquor is an offence which causes defilement. The Telis, on a par with whom are the Tambolis, are decidedly inferior to the large agricultural castes. The distinction between Tili and Teli, observed in Bengal, is unknown in Berar: although there are divisions, of which the Rathor Teli is the higher, within the caste it self. The Dhangars or tenders of sheep and goats, naturally rank below the Gaolis or cow-herds. The Halbis, who in Berar are a weaving rather than an agricultural caste, are socially on a par with Dhangars. Mhalis, or Hajams, probably owe their low position to their being village servants, obliged not only to shave the com-munity, but also to act occasionally as torch-bearers or as personal attendants. The low position assigned to the Gondhalis, the sect devoted to nocturnal song and vigil in honour of the local goddess Hinglaj Bhawani, marks the contempt inspired by neo-Brahmanism for the older local cult. The Kolis would scarcely take precedence of the Bhois, but that part of their number were reclaimed from a wild life at an earlier period than the rest; they ' have among them several substantial patels, and they have fairly reached the agricultural stage of society here.' The Bhoi, or fishermen caste, ranks below the Koli. 'The Warthi or Dhobi, or village washerman, comes low down on the social scale, probably because of his calling, and possibly also because, like the barber, he is fond of liquor. The castes which remain belong to a much lower level than any of the preceding. They are not so much socially inferior, as be-yond social notice altogether. The Banjaras are, in social estimation, on a par with Bhamtas (thieves): so that if the Wanjaris were originally the same people as the Banjaras, they have certainly achieved a wonderful rise in social rank, amid a population very conservative of social distinctions and differences. Decidedly inferior to the Banjaras, in the esteem of their neighbours, are the Kolhatis and Kaikaris, wandering tribes addicted to crime and immorality; the Chitrakathis, who are vagrant mendicants; the Pardhis, or Baurias of Upper India; and the Takankars, or Bagris. Below these again, or rather of equal inferiority in a different sphere, are various castes of settled habits. The Jingars, who make native saddles, and the Buruds, who work in' bamboo, are socially on a par with the Khatik or Hindu butcher. The professional slaughterer of animals, not-withstanding the number of his customers, and not-withstanding that he never lifts his hand against the sacred kine, is placed near the foot of the social ladder. The Waddars, noted for their thieving propensities and fond of catching and eating vermin, are, in the villages of their own country, relegated to a separate quarter, which in appearance is not less poverty-stricken and squalid than that of the Mahars: in Berar they live in little pals; they rank below Khatiks The leather-working castes are superior to the Mahars; the lowest position of all is assigned to the Mangs and Mang Garoris.

96. The arrangement, which has been indicated, although as accurate as information will allow, must be partly conjectural The distinctive and segregative nature of the caste system, rendering each caste in social matters a world apart, renders at the same time any system of precedence between different castes to some extent un-necessary and impossible. With castes which never mix in social intercourse, their relative social rank, if nearly the same, must remain undetermined. The feeling on such matters may vary from taluk to taluk; probably it also varies from generation to generation. The wealth and rank attained by its prominent members may, even among so conservative a people, raise the social estimate in which a caste is held; the Wanjaris and Kolis are examples in point. The numbers of a caste produce a similar effect: and local opinion is therefore safest in its estimate of the local precedence of the largest castes. A brief description of the castes, whose representatives in the District at the last census numbered more than one hundred, is given below. Unfortunately the actual occupation followed by the members of each caste cannot be given, as the information was not obtained at the last census.

Andh.

97. The Andhs numbered about 3300 persons in the District at the census of 1901, of whom 2600 persons were returned from Mehkar taluk and some 700 from Chikhli. They are probably an aboriginal tribe, but nothing can be ascertained as to their origin, and they are not found in any other Province. They have now adopted nearly all the practices of Kunbis and are hardly distinguishable from them in dress or personal appearance. In social status they are generally considered to be only a little lower than the Kunbis, and cultivate in the ordinary manner like them. They employ Brahmans as their priests, and profess to be Vaishnavas by religion, wearing sect-marks on their foreheads. In religion, says Mr. Kitts, the Andhs are more Hinduised than other aborigines. They worship Khandoba, Kanhoba, Maroti, Bairam, and the goddess Elamma or Bhawani. Some worship Dawal Malak and others reverence Haji Saiyad Sarwar. But in two matters they appear to show their Dravidian origin. One is that they will eat the flesh of such unclean animals as fowls, pigs, rats, snakes, and even cats; while they abstain only from that of cows, monkeys and a few others. And the other, that they will re-admit into their caste Andh women detected in a criminal intimacy with men of such impure castes as the Mahars and Mangs. Widow-marriage is practised, but a widow is not permitted to marry the younger brother of her deceased husband. Divorce is not allowed by the caste on any ground. At the time of birth of a child the elderly females of the caste act as midwives. The mother remains impure only for seven days after the birth of a child. The caste burys its dead and performs the mourning ceremony on the tenth day, but they observe no shraddh.

Bairagi.

98. The Bairagis (400), lit. a person disgusted with the world, are wandering ascetics or beggars.

Banjara.

99. The Banjaras numbered 4000, of whom 2776 were found in the Mehkar taluk. The numbers show a great fall, 9842 having been recorded at the census of 1891, of whom 7561 belonged to the Mehkar taluk. The Banjaras of Berar are the same people as the Lambadis of the Madras Presidency and the Manaris mentioned by Tavernier. They are supposed to be the people mentioned by Arrian in the fourth century B.C. as leading a wandering life, dwelling in tents, and letting out for hire their beasts of burden. Their home seems originally to have been the long tract of country under the northern hills from Gorakhpur to Hardwar. In Berar as in the Punjab the Banjaras are often, if not generally, known as Labhanas. Although the Charan division outnumbers the Labhanas, a Charan if asked his caste will answer Labhana, and, if asked what Labhana, will answer Charan Labhana. There are in all six divisions, four Hindu and two Musalman. The highest in rank of the Hindu Banjaras are the Mathurias, who claim to be Brahmans and wear the sacred thread. The Labhanas or salt-carriers evidently came from further north than other Hindu Banjaras. Their claim to be descended from Gaur Brahmans, when coupled with the details of their serpent worship as described by Tavernier, suggests that they are possibly connected with the Gaur Taga tribe. They are considered socially superior to the Charans. Like the Mathurias their women wear saris, while Charan women wear lahengas. They wear the sacred thread. The Charans are said to be of Rajput origin. The story of their creation by Mahadeo to replace the feeble Bhats is well known. Under their leaders Bhangi and Jhangi Naiks, they came first to this Province with the army of Asaf Khan in the campaign which closed with the annexation by Shah Jahan of Ahmadnagar and Berar. ' The two Banjara leaders had with them 190,000 bullocks, and in order to keep these well up with his force Asaf Khan was induced to issue an order engraved on copper and in gold letters, as follows:—

Ranjan ka pani, Chappar ka ghas,

Din ka tin khun muaf

Aur jahan Asaf Jan ke ghore,

Wahan Bhangi Jhangi ke bail,

which being freely translated runs: ' If you can find no water elsewhere, you may even take it from ranjans (pots) of my followers; grass you may take from the roof of their huts; and if you commit three murders a day I will even pardon this, provided that where I find my cavalry I can always find Bhangi Jhangi's bullocks.' The Duke of Wellington subsequently in his Indian campaigns regularly employed Banjaras as part of the commissariat staff of his army. On one occasion he said of them: ' The Banjaras I look upon in the light of servants of the public, the price of whose grain I have a right to regulate.' The Charans do not allow infant marriage; they worship Mariai, the cholera goddess, and the famous bandit Mitu Bhukia, to whom in nearly every tanda a hut is set apart surmounted by a white flag. As a class the Charans are more indiscriminately criminal than the other two divisions, who in their crimes confine themselves to cattle-lifting and kid-napping. The original occupation of the Banjaras was to convey for sale articles for trade such as wheat, salt, rice, red ochre, etc., from one place to another on pack bullocks. When there were no railways, trade was monopolised by them. They have now been forced to settle down to ordinary labour and private service, and have of late years lost much of the evil reputation which formerly attended them.

Baris.

100. The Baris, that is, those who direct water, number 6000, of whom 5089 are found in the Jalgaon taluk. They are a caste whose specialty it is to keep pan-gardens, but they are also engaged in agriculture. They have a legend that at some former time at the Diwali festival the daughter of a Bari affixed a mark of vermilion to the forehead of a Kumbhar's son who presented her with a creeper which she should cultivate and thereby earn her livelihood. In token of their gratitude the Baris still take water from the hands of a Kumbhar. A Bari will never give betel-leaves folded in a bundle to a Kumbhar as he will do to people of other castes. Infant marriage is also allowed. They both bury and cremate their dead. The corpse is laid in the grave on one side with feet to the north, head to the south, and face to the east. They place some food and an earthen pot filled with water for the use of the disembodied soul. A pan-garden can be cultivated successively for five years. In the sixth year they must change its site. The Baris eat fowls and eggs and take the flesh of a goat or sheep. Liquor is drunk both at the time of marriage and funeral rites. They can take food from the hands of a Kunbi, a Phulmali and a Brahman.

Bedar.

101. The Bedars (1100) who are immigrants from the Carnatic have increased from 139 in 1881. They are a labouring caste.

Belder.

102. The Beldars (2000) are earth-workers who get their name from the use of the bel, or mattock in digging, and are principally found in the plain taluks.

Bhangi.

103. The Bhangis (400) are the Hindu scavenger caste and are employed almost exclusively as sweepers.

Bhoi.

104. The Bhois (2900) are fishermen. They still cleave to their hereditary caste occupations much more closely than is the case with many castes, and are consequently to be found where rivers or tanks supply them with fishing. They belong to the Dravidian family of aboriginal races. A Bhoi considers it pollution to eat or drink at the house of a Lohar, a Sutar, a Bhat, a Dhobi, or a barber; he will not even carry their palanquin at a marriage. Like the Pardhis the Bhois have forsworn beef but not liquor. like the Dhangars they wear tanwad ear-rings. Their women wear the toe-rings but not the nose-rings of Hindu women: like Gond women they wear brass bangles, which they do not remove, although they discard the black bead necklace during widowhood. Their funeral ceremony resembles that of Gonds. Cremation is rare. After a burial each mourner repairs to the deceased's house to drink: each then fetches his own dinner and dines with the chief mourner. On the third day after the birth of a child the Bhois distribute to other children food made of juari flour and butter-milk. On the fifth day the slab and mortar, used for grinding the household corn, are washed, anointed and worshipped. On the 12th day the child is named and shortly after this its head is shaved.

Borekar.

105. The Borekars (200) are a comparatively new caste as they were not mentioned in the census of 1881. They are practically confined to the Jalgaon taluk, and are mat-makers. At the time of marriage the bride and bridegroom are seated on mats prepared by the elderly persons of the caste.

Brahman.

106. Brahmans (19,000) constitute 3 per cent. of the population. Almost all the Brahmans are Maharashtra Brahmans of the Deshasth, Konkanasth and Karhada subdivisions. The foreign Brahmans are mostly to be found amongst pleaders, munims and traders, whilst Berar Brahmans are chiefly to be met with in Government service, as patwaris and karkuns. The following note on Brahmans made by a former Deputy Commissioner of Akola is worthy of reproduction:—' Brahman women are regarded by them as but a little lower than men. Their presence is required at many religious ceremonies. The husband publicly eats with his wife on the occasion of his marriage. Their funeral ceremonies are the same. In the '' worship of fire '' the wife may perform the ceremony alone should her husband be absent from home for a time, whereas the reverse is not the case. The tuition of girls is not general, certain hymns taught to boys may not be imparted to girls; although others, which it is considered derogatory for a boy to learn, are taught. Brahman widows may be known by their not having a red mark on their forehead; by their saris being white, red or yellow, and composed of either cotton, or silk; by their not wearing a choli, or glass bangles, or a mangal sutra; and by their heads being clean shaven. Although allowed to pray at the temples they are not allowed to take part in any religious ceremony of a festive nature. If their relatives are too poor to maintain them, Brahman widows are frequently employed by their caste people as cooks; and some- times they will secretly wash clothes for certain families, or gain a livelihood by grinding grain. The intellect of a Brahman is incisive rather than powerful; his peculiar characteristic is self-complacency. He considers no position too high or difficult; he knows that no act, however mean and bad, can prevent his re-admission into his own, the foremost caste. He is envious of those in power, even if placed there by himself. To his exclusiveness much of his influence is due: this, however, is gradually giving way to the requirements of the public service. Brahman schoolmasters, patwaris and others are obliged to reside in small villages where, if they are to have any society at all, they must forget their exclusiveness and mingle with Kunbis on a footing approaching equality.' A Brahman, from his conception in his mother's womb to his death, passes through twelve purificatory rites, three of which are most important and are performed by rich and poor alike. They are the investiture with the sacred thread, marriage ceremony, and funeral rites.

Thread ceremony.

107. The thread ceremony called upanayan is performed when the boy is about eight years old. He becomes by this ceremony twice born and is entitled to study the Vedas. The boy is shaved, perhaps the only auspicious occasion on which shaving is allowed: and after a few ordinary ceremonies is invested with the sacred thread, and a piece of cloth is put around his loins. The father acts as acharya or spiritual teacher, and says that he hands over the boy bachelor to the sun, and invokes the aid of the sun to protect the boy. The prajapati, ' Lord of men,' is also called upon to protect the boy. Then the boy is taught the Gayatri mantra. It may be thus rendered, ' We praise the noble strength of the Sun-god. May he propel our intellects.' There is still a prejudice among Brahmans against repeating this sacred verse before a yavana or one who does not believe in the Vedas. Then a mekhala or ' girdle ' is tied round the boy's waist. The girdle is praised as being lucky, dear to gods, and protector of truth, able to augment penance and withstand the demoniac influences. The girdle is called upon to protect the boy. The boy is also given a small palas stick. The boy accepts it, saying, that the stick may keep him, uncontrollable as he is, from going astray. The boy is then advised to observe the following:—

(a) Achaman (sipping) according to rites after each impurity, such as touching an out-caste.

(b) Not to sleep by day.

(c) To go to a teacher and learn the Vedas.

(d) To beg his food morning and evening.

(e) To offer sacred fuel (satnidh) to the fire, morning and evening.

(f) To lead a pure life of celibacy and study of: Vedas for a period of 12 years.

The boy begins his lesson that very day by begging his food from his mother. The rice thus given is now-a-days cooked and served to Brahmans.

Marriage ceremony.

108. Out of the eight forms of ancient Hindu marriage only two survive. The commonest form is known as Brahma (approved), while the other is called Asuri (disapproved). In the latter form the father of the bride receives payment for giving his daughter in marriage. The marriage age is now later than it used to be, boys being married generally between fourteen and twenty, and girls between nine and twelve. The girl's parents privately propose the match, and take from the boy's parents his horoscope to compare it with the girl's. The comparison is made either by the family priest or by some professional astrologer. Occasionally when a marriage is very much desired, the horoscopes are not consulted to avoid the risk of their not agreeing, and the marriage thus settled is called pritvivah or love-match. If the horoscopes agree a for-mal proposal is made by the parents of the girl regarding hunda (dowry), a fixed sum in cash, karni (presentation of clothes, etc., by one party to the other) and travel-ling expenses. The amount proposed depends upon the status of the father of the boy. As much as Rs. 2000 or Rs. 3000 is sometimes Raid by a Brahman of the upper classes. If the parties are on very friendly terms or are closely related, the dowry is sometimes not taken. The marriage ceremony is invariably performed within a few months after the betrothal, but before that several preliminaries are gone through, one of them being the ceremony called shal mundi, in which a shawl is given to the boy by some member of the girl's family. On the day fixed for the marriage a curtain is held between the bride and bridegroom who are clothed in fresh yellow cotton robes and verses are recited for about half an hour. The curtain is then dropped and the parties see each other for the first time. The guests then generally leave the pandal. Two or three hours before the marriage ceremony takes place the ceremony of kanyadan is per-formed. The father and mother of the bride generally give her away to the bridegroom. The father of the bride recites the motives for the marriage, which are three:—

(1) that the father may go to heaven;

(2) that the souls of the manes may be liberated; and

(3) for procreation.

These formulas are repeated thrice, and at each re-petition the bridegroom assents, finally adding the words ' I take the girl for religious merit and procreation.' The father of the bride then describes how he has nourished his daughter, and requests the bridegroom not to fall short of her in religious duty and desire, to which the bridegroom assents. Various gifts are then made to the bridegroom. Then follows the suvarn abhishek. Water from a pot in which gold, grass and leaves have been put is sprinkled by the priests upon the bride and bridegroom. At the same time they chant verses enjoining the parties to love each other, and the wife to obey the husband. After that cotton thread dyed yellow with turmeric is tied round the pair and verses representing the strength and glory of ancient India are recited. Half the threard is taken by the bride and tied round the wrist of the bridegroom and the latter ties the other half round the wrist of the bride. This ceremony is known as kankan bandhan. Then follows the akshada ropana. Wet rice is thrown by the parties on each other's heads and prayers for wordly prosperity and religious merit are offered. A thread- is then tied round the neck of the bride by the groom, saying that it is the gift of her life and wishing her a life of 100 years. The marriage sacrifice (horn) is now made, sacred fuel, ghi, and fried rice being cast in the fire. Fried rice is then put in the palm of the bride's hand by her brother, and the bridegroom, having added a morsel of ghi, seizes her hands and makes her throw the offering in the fire. He then with his right hand seizes her right wrist, and they both walk round the fire. The bride places her foot upon a slab of stone and a hymn is recited exhorting the bride to be as steady as the stone, be the attack of the enemy ever so strong. The stone is placed to the south, and the faces of the couple are turned to the east. This ceremony is repeated thrice. Then follows the saptapadi. Seven small heaps of rice are laid to the north, and a small pot of water is placed to the east. The couple stand at the first heap with their faces to the east. The bride touches the first heap with her right foot, and as they walk round each of the seven heaps mantras are repeated, of which the first runs thus:—' Oh ! put your first foot and love me— we shall get many sons, may they be at the finish.' The priests sprinkle them with water and bless them. This ceremony is the most important of the marriage celebration, and it is believed that when it is completed the. marriage is binding and cannot be revoked.

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