The Rig-Veda
Its traditional date goes back to 3000 BC, something which the German
scholar Max Mueller accepted. As a body of writing, the Rig-Veda (the
wisdom of verses) is nothing short of remarkable. It contains 1028 hymns
(10,589 verses which are divided into ten mandalas or book-sections)
dedicated to thirty-three different gods. The most often addressed gods
were nature gods like Indra (rain god; king of heavens), Agni (fire
god), Rudra (storm god; the 'howler'), Soma (the draught of immortality,
an alcoholic brew).
The Sama-Veda
The Sama-Veda or the wisdom of chants is basically a collection of
samans or chants, derived from the eighth and ninth books of the
Rig-Veda. These were meant for the priests who officiated at the rituals
of the soma ceremonies. There are painstaking instructions in Sama-Veda
about how particular hymns must be sung; to put great emphasis upon
sounds of the words of the mantras and the effect they could have on the
environment and the person who pronounced them.
The Yajur-Veda
The Yajur-Veda or the wisdom of sacrifices lays down various sacred
invocations (yajurs) which were chanted by a particular sect of priests
called adhvaryu. They performed the sacrificial rites. The Veda also
outlines various chants which should be sung to pray and pay respects to
the various instruments which are involved in the sacrifice.
The Atharva-Veda
The Atharva-Veda (the wisdom of the Atharvans) is called so because the
families of the atharvan sect of the Brahmins have traditionally been
credited with the composition of the Vedas. It is a compilation of hymns
but lacks the awesome grandeur which makes the Rig-Veda such a
breathtaking spiritual experience.
Upanishads
The term Upanishad means sitting down near; this implies
the students sitting down near their Guru to learn the big secret. In
the splendid isolation of their forest abodes, the philosophers who
composed the Upanishads contemplated upon the various mysteries of life
and its creation – whether common, or metaphysical. The answers were
however not open to all, but only for select students. The reason for
this was simple: not everyone can handle knowledge.
The composition of the Upanishads marks a significant
and stride forward in the direction of knowing the mystery of earth's
creation and one comes tantalizingly close to the answers. Through
episodes, commentaries, stories, traditions and dialogue, the Upanishads
unfold the fascinating tale of creation, life, the essence of life and
of that beyond to the seeker of truth.
There is no exact date for the composition of the
Upanishads. They continued to be composed over a long period, the core
being over 7th -5th centuries BC. The Upanishads were originally called
Vedanta, which literally means the conclusion to the Vedas.
In the Upanishads, views about Brahman (the Absolute, or
God) and atman (one's true self) were proposed.
There are 18 principal Upanishads viz:
Brhad-aranyaka Upanishad
The Brhad-aranyaka Upanishad is widely accepted to be the most important
of all Upanishads. It has three khandas or parts. The madhu khanda
contemplates on the relationship between the individual and the
Universal self. The muni khanda or yajnavalkya is a debate which goes on
to give the philosophical backing to the earlier teaching. The khila
khanda tackles various rituals of worship and meditation.
Chandogya Upanishad
This Upanishad is a part of the Sama-Veda (see The Vedas). The name
comes from the singer of the songs (samans) who is called Chandoga. The
initial chapters of the Upanishad, discuss the ritual of sacrifice. The
others debate the origin and profundity of the concept of Om, among
other things.
Aitareya Upanishad
This one forms part of the Rig-Veda. The purpose is to make the reader
understand the deeper meaning of sacrifice and to take him away from the
outer trappings of the actual act.
Taittriya Upanishad
A part of the Yajur-Veda, this Upanishad is divided into three sections
or vallis. The siksa valli deals with the phonetics of the chants, while
the others, brahmananda valli and bhrgu valli deal with
self-realization.
Isa Upanishad
Also called the Isavasya Upanishad, this book deals with the union of
God, the world, being and becoming. The stress is on the Absolute in
relation with the world (paramesvara). The gist of the teachings is that
a person's worldly and otherworldly goals need not necessarily be
opposed to each other.
Kena Upanishad
The name of this Upanishad comes from the first word kena, or by whom.
It has two sections of prose and two of poetry. The verses deal with the
supreme spirit or the absolute principle (brahmaana) and the prose talks
of ishvara (god). The moral of the story is that the knowledge of
ishvara reveals the way to self-realization.
Katha Upanishad
Also called the Kathakopanishad, this Upanishad uses a story (katha)
involving a young Brahmin boy called Nachiketa to reveal the truths of
this world and the other beyond the veil.
Prashna Upanishad
Prashna literally means question, and this book is part of the Athrava-Veda.
It addresses questions pertaining to the ultimate cause, the power of Om,
relation of the supreme to the constituents of the world.
Mundaka Upanishad
This book also belongs to the Atharva-Veda. The name is derived from 'mund'
or to shave, meaning that anyone who understands the Upanishads is
s(h)aved from ignorance. This book inscribes the importance of knowing
the supreme brahmaana, only by which knowledge can one attain
self-realization.
Mandukya Upanishad
The Mandukya is an exquisite treatise which expounds on the principle of
Om and its metaphysical significance in various states of being, waking,
dream and the dreamless sleep. The subtlest and most profound of the
Upanishads, it is said that this alone will lead one to the path of
enlightenment.
Svetasvatara Upanishad
The name of this Upanishad is after its teacher. It comments on the
unity of the souls and the world in one all-encompassing reality. The
concept of there being one god is also talked about here. It is
dedicated to Rudra, the storm god.
Kausitaki Brahmana Upanishad
The Upanishad has come down to us in bits here and pieces there. The
core of the text is dedicated to illustrating the fact that the path to
release is through knowledge.
Maitri Upanishad
This is a comparatively later Upanishad as it has references to the
Trinity of Hindu Gods (Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma) which is a later
development, and plus references to the world being illusory in
character reflects Buddhist influence.
Subala Upanishad
Belonging to the Yajur-Veda, this Upanishad puts down a dialogue between
the sage Subala and Brahma the creator of the Hindu Trinity of Gods. It
discusses the universe and the absolute.
Puranas
The Puranas contain the essence of the Vedas. They were
written to impress the teachings of the Vedas onto the masses and to
generate devotion to God in them. They have five characteristics:
history, cosmology (with symbolical illustrations of philosophical
principles), secondary creation, genealogy of kings, and Manvantaras
(the period of Manu's rule consisting of 71 celestial yugas).
The Puranas were meant, not for the scholars, but for
ordinary people who could not understand high philosophy and could not
study the Vedas. There is an emphasis on the worship of Brahma (the
creator), Vishnu (the preserver), Shiva (the destroyer), Surya (the Sun
God), Ganesha (the elephant headed god known to be the remover of
obstructions ), and Shakti (the goddess). All the Puranas belong to the
class of Suhrit-Sammitas, or the Friendly Treatises, while the Vedas are
called Prabhu-Sammitas or Commanding Treatises with great authority.
There are 18 Puranas : Brahma Purana, Padma Purana,
Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana or Siva Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Narada
Purana, Markandeya Purana, Agni Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Brahma
Vaivarta Purana, Linga Purana, Varaha Purana, Skanda Purana, Vamana
Purana, Kurma Purana, Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana.
Of these, six are Sattvic Puranas glorifying Vishnu; six
are Rajasic, glorifying Brahma; six are Tamasic, glorifying Siva. Vyasa,
the son of Rishi Parasara, is said to be the author of them all.
Vedas - Upanishads - Puranas
Vedas
The oldest literature of Indian thought is
the Veda, a collection of religious and philisophical poems and hymns
composed over several generations beginning as early as 3000 BC. The
Veda was composed in Sanskrit, the intellectual language of both ancient
and classical Indian civilizations. Four collections were made, so it is
said that there are four Vedas. The four as a group came to be viewed as
sacred in Hinduism.
Some Vedic hymns and poems address
philosophic themes, such as the henotheism that is key to much Hindu
theology. Henotheism is the idea that one God takes many different
forms, and that although individuals may worship several different gods
and goddesses, they really revere but one Supreme Being.
There are four Vedas:
The Rig-Veda
Its traditional date goes back to 3000 BC, something which the German
scholar Max Mueller accepted. As a body of writing, the Rig-Veda (the
wisdom of verses) is nothing short of remarkable. It contains 1028 hymns
(10,589 verses which are divided into ten mandalas or book-sections)
dedicated to thirty-three different gods. The most often addressed gods
were nature gods like Indra (rain god; king of heavens), Agni (fire
god), Rudra (storm god; the 'howler'), Soma (the draught of immortality,
an alcoholic brew).
The Sama-Veda
The Sama-Veda or the wisdom of chants is basically a collection of
samans or chants, derived from the eighth and ninth books of the
Rig-Veda. These were meant for the priests who officiated at the rituals
of the soma ceremonies. There are painstaking instructions in Sama-Veda
about how particular hymns must be sung; to put great emphasis upon
sounds of the words of the mantras and the effect they could have on the
environment and the person who pronounced them.
The Yajur-Veda
The Yajur-Veda or the wisdom of sacrifices lays down various sacred
invocations (yajurs) which were chanted by a particular sect of priests
called adhvaryu. They performed the sacrificial rites. The Veda also
outlines various chants which should be sung to pray and pay respects to
the various instruments which are involved in the sacrifice.
The Atharva-Veda
The Atharva-Veda (the wisdom of the Atharvans) is called so because the
families of the atharvan sect of the Brahmins have traditionally been
credited with the composition of the Vedas. It is a compilation of hymns
but lacks the awesome grandeur which makes the Rig-Veda such a
breathtaking spiritual experience.
Upanishads
The term Upanishad means sitting down near;
this implies the students sitting down near their Guru to learn the big
secret. In the splendid isolation of their forest abodes, the
philosophers who composed the Upanishads contemplated upon the various
mysteries of life and its creation – whether common, or metaphysical.
The answers were however not open to all, but only for select students.
The reason for this was simple: not everyone can handle knowledge.
The composition of the Upanishads marks a
significant and stride forward in the direction of knowing the mystery
of earth's creation and one comes tantalizingly close to the answers.
Through episodes, commentaries, stories, traditions and dialogue, the
Upanishads unfold the fascinating tale of creation, life, the essence of
life and of that beyond to the seeker of truth.
There is no exact date for the composition
of the Upanishads. They continued to be composed over a long period, the
core being over 7th -5th centuries BC. The Upanishads were originally
called Vedanta, which literally means the conclusion to the Vedas.
In the Upanishads, views about Brahman (the
Absolute, or God) and atman (one's true self) were proposed.
There are 18 principal
Upanishads viz:
Brhad-aranyaka Upanishad
The Brhad-aranyaka Upanishad is widely accepted to be the most important
of all Upanishads. It has three khandas or parts. The madhu khanda
contemplates on the relationship between the individual and the
Universal self. The muni khanda or yajnavalkya is a debate which goes on
to give the philosophical backing to the earlier teaching. The khila
khanda tackles various rituals of worship and meditation.
Chandogya Upanishad
This Upanishad is a part of the Sama-Veda (see The Vedas). The name
comes from the singer of the songs (samans) who is called Chandoga. The
initial chapters of the Upanishad, discuss the ritual of sacrifice. The
others debate the origin and profundity of the concept of Om, among
other things.
Aitareya Upanishad
This one forms part of the Rig-Veda. The purpose is to make the reader
understand the deeper meaning of sacrifice and to take him away from the
outer trappings of the actual act.
Taittriya Upanishad
A part of the Yajur-Veda, this Upanishad is divided into three sections
or vallis. The siksa valli deals with the phonetics of the chants, while
the others, brahmananda valli and bhrgu valli deal with
self-realization.
Isa Upanishad
Also called the Isavasya Upanishad, this book deals with the union of
God, the world, being and becoming. The stress is on the Absolute in
relation with the world (paramesvara). The gist of the teachings is that
a person's worldly and otherworldly goals need not necessarily be
opposed to each other.
Kena Upanishad
The name of this Upanishad comes from the first word kena, or by whom.
It has two sections of prose and two of poetry. The verses deal with the
supreme spirit or the absolute principle (brahmaana) and the prose talks
of ishvara (god). The moral of the story is that the knowledge of
ishvara reveals the way to self-realization.
Katha Upanishad
Also called the Kathakopanishad, this Upanishad uses a story (katha)
involving a young Brahmin boy called Nachiketa to reveal the truths of
this world and the other beyond the veil.
Prashna Upanishad
Prashna literally means question, and this book is part of the Athrava-Veda.
It addresses questions pertaining to the ultimate cause, the power of Om,
relation of the supreme to the constituents of the world.
Mundaka Upanishad
This book also belongs to the Atharva-Veda. The name is derived from 'mund'
or to shave, meaning that anyone who understands the Upanishads is
s(h)aved from ignorance. This book inscribes the importance of knowing
the supreme brahmaana, only by which knowledge can one attain
self-realization.
Mandukya Upanishad
The Mandukya is an exquisite treatise which expounds on the principle of
Om and its metaphysical significance in various states of being, waking,
dream and the dreamless sleep. The subtlest and most profound of the
Upanishads, it is said that this alone will lead one to the path of
enlightenment.
Svetasvatara Upanishad
The name of this Upanishad is after its teacher. It comments on the
unity of the souls and the world in one all-encompassing reality. The
concept of there being one god is also talked about here. It is
dedicated to Rudra, the storm god.
Kausitaki Brahmana Upanishad
The Upanishad has come down to us in bits here and pieces there. The
core of the text is dedicated to illustrating the fact that the path to
release is through knowledge.
Maitri Upanishad
This is a comparatively later Upanishad as it has references to the
Trinity of Hindu Gods (Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma) which is a later
development, and plus references to the world being illusory in
character reflects Buddhist influence.
Subala Upanishad
Belonging to the Yajur-Veda, this Upanishad puts down a dialogue between
the sage Subala and Brahma the creator of the Hindu Trinity of Gods. It
discusses the universe and the absolute.
Jabala Upanishad
Belonging to the Athrava-Veda this Upanishad addresses some questions
pertaining to renunciation.
Paingala Upanishad
The Paingala is again a dialog, this between Yajnavalkya, the sage
mentioned the Brhad-aranyaka's muni khanda and Paingala, a student of
his. It discusses meditation and its effects.
Kaivalya Upanishad
This Upanishad delves into the state of kaivalya or being alone.
Vajrasucika Upanishad
Belonging to the Sama-Veda the Vajrasucika reflects on the nature of the
supreme being.
The core of the teachings of the Upanishads
is summed up in three words: tat tvam as… you are that.
Puranas
The Puranas contain the essence of the
Vedas. They were written to impress the teachings of the Vedas onto the
masses and to generate devotion to God in them. They have five
characteristics: history, cosmology (with symbolical illustrations of
philosophical principles), secondary creation, genealogy of kings, and
Manvantaras (the period of Manu's rule consisting of 71 celestial
yugas).
The Puranas were meant, not for the
scholars, but for ordinary people who could not understand high
philosophy and could not study the Vedas. There is an emphasis on the
worship of Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver), Shiva (the
destroyer), Surya (the Sun God), Ganesha (the elephant headed god known
to be the remover of obstructions ), and Shakti (the goddess). All the
Puranas belong to the class of Suhrit-Sammitas, or the Friendly
Treatises, while the Vedas are called Prabhu-Sammitas or Commanding
Treatises with great authority.
There are 18 Puranas : Brahma Purana, Padma
Purana, Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana or Siva Purana, Bhagavata Purana,
Narada Purana, Markandeya Purana, Agni Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Brahma
Vaivarta Purana, Linga Purana, Varaha Purana, Skanda Purana, Vamana
Purana, Kurma Purana, Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana.
Of these, six are Sattvic Puranas
glorifying Vishnu; six are Rajasic, glorifying Brahma; six are Tamasic,
glorifying Siva. Vyasa, the son of Rishi Parasara, is said to be the
author of them all.
Vedas
"Whence this creation has come into existence,
Whether He established it or did not;
He who is its overseer in the higher firmament,
He verily knows or knows not…"
-The Rig-Veda (hymns to Prajapati, the creator)
This is one of the famous hymns from the most ancient scripture of the
world - the Vedas. The Vedas are the primary texts of Hinduism. It was
around 1200BC, when the first Aryan immigrants in India started
composing the various hymns and incantations in praise of various
Aryan gods.
The Vedas paint a very clear picture of the life being led by the
Aryans at that time. These are the most ancient extensive texts in any
Indo-European language, and as such are invaluable in the study of
comparative languages. The Vedas also reflect the changes in the Aryan
society - from settling down to becoming permanent inhabitants.
There are four Vedas- the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and
Atharva Veda. Indian Vedas have also influenced the philosophy
and the writings of Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.
The Rig Veda
-
According to the modern historians, the oldest parts
of Rig Veda were written around 1200BC.
-
Rig-Veda (the Wisdom of Verses) contains 1028 hymns
dedicated to thirty-three nature gods. The most commonly addressed
gods are :
-
Rig Veda has 10,589 verses and is divided into ten
mandalas or book sections.
-
The book sections two to seven form the oldest
portions of Rig Veda.
-
The book sections are arranged according to the
number of hymns.
-
The Rig Vedic hymns were sung by a special priest
called Hotri.
Sama Veda
-
The Sama-Veda (the Wisdom of Chants) is a collection
of chants (samans), derived from the eighth and ninth books of the
Rig-Veda.
-
The chants were meant for the priests called
Udgatri who officiated at the rituals and ceremonies.
-
As rituals and ceremonies became complex, the simple
Rig Vedic chants were forgotten. Thus, chants and rituals were
compiled in the Sama Veda.
-
Sama Veda also outlines the duties of the priests
and the way the rituals would be performed.
-
There are instructions in the Sama Veda about the
way hymns would be sung, about pronunciation of words. This Veda
also states the effects these hymns would have on the person
pronouncing them and on the environment.
Yajur Veda
-
The Yajur Veda (the Wisdom of Sacrifices) outlines
sacred invocations (yajurs).
-
This Veda deals with rituals regarding sacrifices.
-
The Yajur Veda invocations were sung by a class of
priests called Adhvaryu.
-
This is a ritual based Veda that lays down various
chants which should be sung to pray and pay respects to the various
instruments which are involved in the sacrifice.
Atharva Veda
-
The Atharva Veda (the Wisdom of the Atharvans) gets
its name from the Atharvan sect of the Brahmins who composed this
Veda.
-
It is a compilation of simple hymns, spells and
incantations.
-
It is a misconception that Atharva Veda mostly deals
with magic.
-
Atharva Veda deals with spells, medicine, astronomy,
philosophy.
Upanishads
The term Upanishad means "those who sit
near" and implies listening closely to the secret doctrines of a
spiritual teacher. The Upanishads are a collection of Indian
speculations on the nature of reality and the soul and the relations
between these two. The texts date from around 600 BC. They often
give the impression of a building under construction - an ongoing
exploration of themes not yet fully resolved. Like the Bhagavad
Gita, Upanishads are the work of several hands.
The theme that unites these writings, is the search for an
underlying unity linking everything we see and think. That unity is
called Brahman. In most texts, Brahman is said to be
identical with Atman, the world soul, which is also identical
with the Atman of each individual. In this sense every
individual is united with the cosmos, and only needs to realize this
fact to reach fulfillment.
The Upanishads are, thus, essentially pantheistic. However, their
quest for unity went at times too far. Since the world we see is
highly diverse, some texts deduce that if the cosmos is unitary,
then appearances must be Maya (a magical trick). The self,
the presence of the cosmic Self within each person, is the 'Real'
world - a world of pure thought, which cannot be apprehended by the
senses. Meanwhile the real sensible world of life and love, birth
and death, is dismissed as no more than a dream projected by the
self. Once a person realizes this, the illusion falls away and they
become one with the all.
This view - similar in essence to most schools of Buddhism -
contrasts strongly with realistic pantheisms which accept the
material world as real. Idealistic pantheism fails to explain why we
all dream the same dream - why the detail of the sensible world is
shared by everyone present. It cannot explain why we should start to
'dream' the world at all, nor why there should be a `we' to dream.
The belief that reality is illusion is perhaps the greatest illusion
of all. It leads to indifference, inaction, insensitivity,
world-blindness, death in life. Indeed in the Upanishads all these
are praised as the highest wisdom.
No life can be led in an illusory world - even hermits and monks
have to eat, excrete, and sleep. Thus, they are forced to
acknowledge, in action, the reality of the world they deny in
theory, and their own lives disprove their beliefs. The only life
that is consistent with full acceptance of idealist pantheism is a
hunger strike until death. The sage who wishes to survive another
day must forget his wisdom.
Jabala Upanishad
Belonging to the Athrava-Veda this Upanishad addresses some questions
pertaining to renunciation.
Paingala Upanishad
The Paingala is again a dialog, this between Yajnavalkya, the sage
mentioned the Brhad-aranyaka's muni khanda and Paingala, a student of
his. It discusses meditation and its effects.
Kaivalya Upanishad
This Upanishad delves into the state of kaivalya or being alone.
Vajrasucika Upanishad
Belonging to the Sama-Veda the Vajrasucika reflects on the nature of the
supreme being.
The core of the teachings of the Upanishads is summed up
in three words: tat tvam as… you are that.
Vedas
The oldest literature of Indian thought is the Veda, a collection
of religious and philisophical poems and hymns composed over several
generations beginning as early as 3000 BC. The Veda was composed in
Sanskrit, the intellectual language of both ancient and classical
Indian civilizations. Four collections were made, so it is said that
there are four Vedas. The four as a group came to be viewed as
sacred in Hinduism.
Some Vedic hymns and poems address philosophic themes, such as
the henotheism that is key to much Hindu theology. Henotheism is the
idea that one God takes many different forms, and that although
individuals may worship several different gods and goddesses, they
really revere but one Supreme Being.
There are four Vedas:
The Rig-Veda
Its traditional date goes back to 3000 BC, something which the
German scholar Max Mueller accepted. As a body of writing, the
Rig-Veda (the wisdom of verses) is nothing short of remarkable. It
contains 1028 hymns (10,589 verses which are divided into ten
mandalas or book-sections) dedicated to thirty-three different gods.
The most often addressed gods were nature gods like Indra (rain god;
king of heavens), Agni (fire god), Rudra (storm god; the 'howler'),
Soma (the draught of immortality, an alcoholic brew).
The Sama-Veda
The Sama-Veda or the wisdom of chants is basically a collection of
samans or chants, derived from the eighth and ninth books of the
Rig-Veda. These were meant for the priests who officiated at the
rituals of the soma ceremonies. There are painstaking instructions
in Sama-Veda about how particular hymns must be sung; to put great
emphasis upon sounds of the words of the mantras and the effect they
could have on the environment and the person who pronounced them.
The Yajur-Veda
The Yajur-Veda or the wisdom of sacrifices lays down various sacred
invocations (yajurs) which were chanted by a particular sect of
priests called adhvaryu. They performed the sacrificial rites. The
Veda also outlines various chants which should be sung to pray and
pay respects to the various instruments which are involved in the
sacrifice.
The Atharva-Veda
The Atharva-Veda (the wisdom of the Atharvans) is called so because
the families of the atharvan sect of the Brahmins have traditionally
been credited with the composition of the Vedas. It is a compilation
of hymns but lacks the awesome grandeur which makes the Rig-Veda
such a breathtaking spiritual experience.
Upanishads
The term Upanishad means sitting down near; this implies the
students sitting down near their Guru to learn the big secret. In
the splendid isolation of their forest abodes, the philosophers who
composed the Upanishads contemplated upon the various mysteries of
life and its creation – whether common, or metaphysical. The answers
were however not open to all, but only for select students. The
reason for this was simple: not everyone can handle knowledge.
The composition of the Upanishads marks a significant and stride
forward in the direction of knowing the mystery of earth's creation
and one comes tantalizingly close to the answers. Through episodes,
commentaries, stories, traditions and dialogue, the Upanishads
unfold the fascinating tale of creation, life, the essence of life
and of that beyond to the seeker of truth.
There is no exact date for the composition of the Upanishads.
They continued to be composed over a long period, the core being
over 7th -5th centuries BC. The Upanishads were originally called
Vedanta, which literally means the conclusion to the Vedas.
In the Upanishads, views about Brahman (the Absolute, or God) and
atman (one's true self) were proposed.
There are 18 principal Upanishads viz:
Brhad-aranyaka Upanishad
The Brhad-aranyaka Upanishad is widely accepted to be the most
important of all Upanishads. It has three khandas or parts. The
madhu khanda contemplates on the relationship between the individual
and the Universal self. The muni khanda or yajnavalkya is a debate
which goes on to give the philosophical backing to the earlier
teaching. The khila khanda tackles various rituals of worship and
meditation.
Chandogya Upanishad
This Upanishad is a part of the Sama-Veda (see The Vedas). The name
comes from the singer of the songs (samans) who is called Chandoga.
The initial chapters of the Upanishad, discuss the ritual of
sacrifice. The others debate the origin and profundity of the
concept of Om, among other things.
Aitareya Upanishad
This one forms part of the Rig-Veda. The purpose is to make the
reader understand the deeper meaning of sacrifice and to take him
away from the outer trappings of the actual act.
Taittriya Upanishad
A part of the Yajur-Veda, this Upanishad is divided into three
sections or vallis. The siksa valli deals with the phonetics of the
chants, while the others, brahmananda valli and bhrgu valli deal
with self-realization.
Isa Upanishad
Also called the Isavasya Upanishad, this book deals with the union
of God, the world, being and becoming. The stress is on the Absolute
in relation with the world (paramesvara). The gist of the teachings
is that a person's worldly and otherworldly goals need not
necessarily be opposed to each other.
Kena Upanishad
The name of this Upanishad comes from the first word kena, or by
whom. It has two sections of prose and two of poetry. The verses
deal with the supreme spirit or the absolute principle (brahmaana)
and the prose talks of ishvara (god). The moral of the story is that
the knowledge of ishvara reveals the way to self-realization.
Katha Upanishad
Also called the Kathakopanishad, this Upanishad uses a story (katha)
involving a young Brahmin boy called Nachiketa to reveal the truths
of this world and the other beyond the veil.
Prashna Upanishad
Prashna literally means question, and this book is part of the
Athrava-Veda. It addresses questions pertaining to the ultimate
cause, the power of Om, relation of the supreme to the constituents
of the world.
Mundaka Upanishad
This book also belongs to the Atharva-Veda. The name is derived from
'mund' or to shave, meaning that anyone who understands the
Upanishads is s(h)aved from ignorance. This book inscribes the
importance of knowing the supreme brahmaana, only by which knowledge
can one attain self-realization.
Mandukya Upanishad
The Mandukya is an exquisite treatise which expounds on the
principle of Om and its metaphysical significance in various states
of being, waking, dream and the dreamless sleep. The subtlest and
most profound of the Upanishads, it is said that this alone will
lead one to the path of enlightenment.
Svetasvatara Upanishad
The name of this Upanishad is after its teacher. It comments on the
unity of the souls and the world in one all-encompassing reality.
The concept of there being one god is also talked about here. It is
dedicated to Rudra, the storm god.
Kausitaki Brahmana Upanishad
The Upanishad has come down to us in bits here and pieces there. The
core of the text is dedicated to illustrating the fact that the path
to release is through knowledge.
Maitri Upanishad
This is a comparatively later Upanishad as it has references to the
Trinity of Hindu Gods (Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma) which is a later
development, and plus references to the world being illusory in
character reflects Buddhist influence.
Subala Upanishad
Belonging to the Yajur-Veda, this Upanishad puts down a dialogue
between the sage Subala and Brahma the creator of the Hindu Trinity
of Gods. It discusses the universe and the absolute.
Jabala Upanishad
Belonging to the Athrava-Veda this Upanishad addresses some
questions pertaining to renunciation.
Paingala Upanishad
The Paingala is again a dialog, this between Yajnavalkya, the sage
mentioned the Brhad-aranyaka's muni khanda and Paingala, a student
of his. It discusses meditation and its effects.
Kaivalya Upanishad
This Upanishad delves into the state of kaivalya or being alone.
Vajrasucika Upanishad
Belonging to the Sama-Veda the Vajrasucika reflects on the nature of
the supreme being.
The core of the teachings of the Upanishads is summed up in three
words: tat tvam as… you are that.
Puranas
The Puranas contain the essence of the Vedas. They were written
to impress the teachings of the Vedas onto the masses and to
generate devotion to God in them. They have five characteristics:
history, cosmology (with symbolical illustrations of philosophical
principles), secondary creation, genealogy of kings, and Manvantaras
(the period of Manu's rule consisting of 71 celestial yugas).
The Puranas were meant, not for the scholars, but for ordinary
people who could not understand high philosophy and could not study
the Vedas. There is an emphasis on the worship of Brahma (the
creator), Vishnu (the preserver), Shiva (the destroyer), Surya (the
Sun God), Ganesha (the elephant headed god known to be the remover
of obstructions ), and Shakti (the goddess). All the Puranas belong
to the class of Suhrit-Sammitas, or the Friendly Treatises, while
the Vedas are called Prabhu-Sammitas or Commanding Treatises with
great authority.
There are 18 Puranas : Brahma Purana, Padma Purana, Vishnu
Purana, Vayu Purana or Siva Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Narada Purana,
Markandeya Purana, Agni Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Brahma Vaivarta
Purana, Linga Purana, Varaha Purana, Skanda Purana, Vamana Purana,
Kurma Purana, Matsya Purana, Garuda Purana and Brahmanda Purana.
Of these, six are Sattvic Puranas glorifying Vishnu; six are
Rajasic, glorifying Brahma; six are Tamasic, glorifying Siva. Vyasa,
the son of Rishi Parasara, is said to be the author of them all.
The Four Vedas
The Vedas are considered the oldest Hindu texts. Scholars
believe that they were written down some 2,500 years ago, though
the tradition often dates them to the beginning of Kali-yuga
(circa 3000 BCE). Some Hindus say that there was originally only
one Veda, the Yajur, which was later divided into four.
Scholars, however, usually consider the Rig-Veda the
oldest of all Hindu writings. The following is an overview of the
four Vedas.
The Rig-Veda
The most important and, according to scholars, oldest of the
Vedas. It is divided into ten books (called mandalas) and
has 1028 hymns in praise of various deities. These include Indra,
Agni, Vishnu, Rudra, Varuna, and other early or "Vedic gods." It
also contains the famous Gayatri mantra and the prayer called the
Purusha Shukta (the story of Primal Man).
The Yajur-Veda
A priestly handbook for use in the performance of yajnas
(sacrifices) It is divided into two sections, the earlier "black"
and the more recent "white."
Sama-Veda
This consists of chants and melodies to be sung during worship
and the performance of yajna.
Atharva-Veda
Contains hymns, mantras and incantations, largely outside the
scope of yajna.
Within each of the four books there are four types of
composition, or divisions, as shown below. In the narrowest of
senses, only the Samhitas comprise the true Vedas. The first two
divisions relate to the performance of sacrificial rituals (the
karma-kanda section), whereas the second pair consists of
philosophy (and belong to the jnana-kanda section).
-
The Samhitas – literally "collections," in this case of
hymns and mantras. They form the Veda proper.
-
The Brahmanas – prose manuals of ritual and prayer for the
guiding priests. They tend to explain the Samhitas. They also
contain early versions of some stories.
-
The Aranyakas – literally "forest books" for hermits and
saints. They are philosophical treatises.
-
The Upanishads – books of philosophy, also called "Vedanta,"
the end or conclusion of the Vedas.
There are also two important bodies of supplementary
literature, related closely to the Vedas themselves. They are:
-
The Vedangas, which expound the sciences required to
understand and apply the Vedas.
-
The Upavedas (usually considered smriti) which deal
with the four traditional arts and sciences.
The Six Vedangas (limbs of the Vedas)
-
Kalpa (ritual detail)
-
Siksha (pronunciation)
-
Vyakarana (grammar)
-
Nirukti (etymology)
-
Chandas (metre)
-
Jyotisha (astronomy/astrology)
The Four Upavedas (following the Vedas) explain arts and
sciences
-
Ayur-veda (medicine)
-
Gandharva-veda (music and dance)
-
Dhanur-veda (warfare)
-
Shilpa-veda (architecture)
Scriptural Passage
"We meditate on that most adorable, most desirable and most
enchanting effulgence of the Supreme Lord, who is the source of
creation, inspiration and eternal happiness. May His light inspire
and illumine our intellect."
Gayatri Mantra (from the Rig Veda)
The Upanishads and Vedanta Sutras
Upanishads
Upanishad means "sitting near," alluding to the tutorials
given by a guru to his disciples (who would traditionally sit
"at his feet'). The Upanishads are philosophical texts
delineating some of the key concepts within Hinduism, including
notions of the soul, reincarnation, karma, Brahman and
liberation. The Upanishads are sometimes considered the
beginning of direct spiritual instruction within the Vedas. The
traditional number of Upanishads is 108, though there are many
more, especially of recent origin. Of these, 13 are usually
considered most important.
Vedanta Sutras
The Vedanta Sutras (also called the Brahma Sutras) are an
attempt by the sage Vyasa (Badarayana) to systematise the
teachings of the Upanishads. There are a total of 550 aphorisms
divided between four chapters. Various authors wrote lengthy
commentaries upon them, giving rise to the many different and
often conflicting schools of Vedanta (see
The Vedas
The Essence of Vedas
'Whence this creation has come into existence,
whether He established it or did not;
He who is its overseer in the higher firmament,
He verily knows or knows not…'
– The Rig-Veda (hymns to Prajapati, the creator)
Typical mind game from the subtlest and most profound of all ancient
Indian, and indeed world, scriptures. This spirit of questioning is,
in many ways, the essence of the Vedas, as also the age when the
Aryans were finding their feet in India.
The story goes back a long time. It starts in 1200BC, when the first
Aryan immigrants in India started composing the various hymns that
are part of the books. They were meant to be mantras (incantations)
in praise of various Aryan gods. What they also reflect is a
startlingly vivid picture of life, as was being led by the Aryans
who came to India. Things move along as they trace the settling down
of the Aryans in their new habitat and the various changes that
invariably happened in their society.
There are four Vedas:
The Rig-Veda:- The date for the Rig-Veda was in controversy for
a long time. The traditional date goes back to 3000BC, something
which the German scholar Max Mueller accepted. However, modern
historians have now reached a consensus that its oldest parts were
written around a more cautious 1200BC.
As a body of writing, the Rig-Veda (the wisdom of verses) is nothing
short of remarkable. It contains 1028 hymns dedicated to
thirty-three different gods; these gods were, quite expectedly,
nature gods. The most often addressed gods are Indra (rain god; king
of heavens), Agni (fire god) and Rudra (storm god; the 'howler'). A
sizeable chunk of the verses are also dedicated to Soma (the draught
of immortality), which was a cool alcoholic brew made from the
leaves of the soma plant and was drunk during sacrifices. The
identity of the plant itself is subject of furious debate. In
nature, however, it was somewhat similar to the brews that the
American Indians used to consume before conducting sacrifices – to
numb both the sacrificer and the sacrificee although human sacrifice
was never a part of Aryan worship.
This oldest religious text in the world has10,589 verses which are
divided into ten mandalas or book-sections. The oldest portions of
the Rig-Veda are from books two to seven; the others were added
later. The book-sections are arranged according to the number of
hymns they possess.
The Sama-Veda:- The Sama-Veda or the wisdom of chants is
basically a collection of samans or chants, derived from the eighth
and ninth books of the 'original Veda', the Rig-Veda. These were
meant for the priests who officiated at the rituals of the soma
ceremonies – in full sway there could have as many as seventeen full
rituals. As time went along rituals and ceremonies of worship became
increasingly intricate and the simplicity of the original Rig-Vedic
age was slowly forgotten. Thus a need arose to compile all the
rituals and their chants in a book, as a sort of reference point for
the priests whose functions this Veda clearly puts down.
It is not surprising that the Sama-Veda is better known for the
precise meter of its poetry than for its literary content. There are
also painstaking instructions in Sama-Veda about how particular
hymns must be sung; this is perhaps because great emphasis was put
upon sounds of the words of the mantras and the effect they could
have on the environment and the person who pronounced them.
The Yajur-Veda:- The Yajur-Veda or the wisdom of sacrifices
lays down various sacred invocations (yajurs) which were chanted by
a particular sect of priests called adhvaryu. They performed the
sacrificial rites. This is very much a ritual based Veda for
although there are a few hymns to various Gods the main stress is on
the theory of the ritual. The Veda also outlines various chants
which should be sung to pray and pay respects to the various
instruments which are involved in the sacrifice.
The Atharva-Veda:- The Atharva-Veda (the wisdom of the
Atharvans) is called so because the families of the atharvan sect of
the Brahmins have traditionally been credited with the composition
of the Vedas. It is a compilation of hymns but lacks the awesome
grandeur which makes the Rig-Veda such a breathtaking spiritual
experience. It is roughly equivalent to the western magic spells and
has incantations for everything – from success in love to the
realization of otherworldly ambitions.
The Upanishads
Only when men shall roll up the sky like a hide, will there be an
end to misery; unless God has first been known…
The Svetasvatara Upanishad
Upanishad Unfolds Fascinating Tale of Creation
The search for Self and the Ultimate Truth has been the Holy Grail
that man has sought after ceaselessly down the ages. Why? What?
Whence? Whither? The answers to these questions have persistently
eluded man, and perhaps that is how things were meant to be. The
composition of the Upanishads marks a significant and stride forward
in the direction of knowing and one comes tantalizingly close to the
answers. Through episodes, commentaries, stories, traditions and
dialogue, the Upanishads unfold the fascinating tale of creation,
life, the essence of life and of that beyond to the seeker of truth.
The Term Upanishad Deals With The Occult Knowledge
The term Upanishad means ('upa' near; 'ni' down; 'shad' to sit)
sitting down near; this implies the students sitting down near their
Guru to learn the big secret. In the splendid isolation of their
forest abodes, the philosophers who composed the Upanishads
contemplated upon the various mysteries – whether common, or
metaphysical. The answers were however not open to all, but only for
select students. A parallel to this might be found in the secret
societies of the priests of various Egyptian Gods; the mysteries of
Isis or Osiris and so on were meant only for the ears of a very
select group. The reason for this was simple: not everyone can
handle knowledge.
There is no exact date for the composition of the Upanishads. They
continued to be composed over a long period, the core being over 7th
-5th centuries BC. The Upanishads were originally
called Vedanta, which literally means the conclusion to the Vedas.
There are 18 principal Upanishads:
Brhad-aranyaka Upanishad
The Brhad-aranyaka Upanishad is widely accepted to be the most
important of all Upanishads. It has three khandas or parts. The
madhu khanda contemplates on the relationship between the individual
and the Universal self. The muni khanda or yajnavalkya is a debate
which goes on to give the philosophical backing to the earlier
teaching. The khila khanda tackles various rituals of worship and
meditation.
Chandogya Upanishad
This Upanishad is a part of the Sama-Veda (see The Vedas). The name
comes from the singer of the songs (samans) who is called Chandoga.
The initial chapters of the Upanishad, taking a cue from the
Sama-Veda, discuss the ritual of sacrifice. The others debate the
origin and profundity of the concept of Om, among other things.
Aitareya Upanishad
This one forms part of the Rig-Veda (see The Vedas). The purpose of
this Upanishad is to make the reader understand the deeper meaning
of sacrifice and to take him away from the outer trappings of the
actual act.
Taittriya Upanishad
A part of the Yajur-Veda, this Upanishad is divided into three
sections or vallis. The siksa valli deals with the phonetics of the
chants, while the others, brahmananda valli and bhrgu valli deal
with self-realization.
Isa Upanishad
Also called the Isavasya Upanishad, this book deals with the union
of God, the world, being and becoming. The stress is on the Absolute
in relation with the world (paramesvara). The gist of the teachings
is that a person's worldly and otherworldly goals need not
necessarily be opposed to each other.
Kena Upanishad
The name of this Upanishad comes from the first word kena, or by
whom. It has four sections; two are prose and the others poetry. The
verses deal with the supreme spirit or the absolute principle
(brahmaana) and the prose talks of ishvara (god). The moral of the
story is that the knowledge of ishvara reveals the way to
self-realization.
Katha Upanisdha
Also called the Kathakopanishad, this Upanishad uses a story (katha)
involving a young Brahmin boy called Nachiketa to reveal the truths
of this world and the other beyond the veil.
Prashna Upanishad
Prashna literally means question, and this book is part of the
Atharva-Veda (see The Vedas). It addresses questions pertaining to
the ultimate cause, the power of Om, relation of the supreme to the
constituents of the world.
Mundaka Upanishad
This book also belongs to the Atharva-Veda. It has three chapters
which are further divided into two sections. The name is derived
from 'mund' or to shave, meaning that anyone who understands the
Upanishads is s(h)aved from ignorance. This book inscribes the
importance of knowing the supreme brahmana, only by which knowledge
can one attain self-realization.
Mandukya Upanishad
The Mandukya is an exquisite treatise which expounds on the
principle of Om and its metaphysical significance in various states
of being, waking, dream and the dreamless sleep. The subtlest and
most profound of the Upanishads, it is said that this alone will
lead one to the path of enlightenment.
Svetasvatara Upanishad
The name of this Upanishad is after its teacher. It comments on the
unity of the souls and the world in one all-encompassing reality.
The concept of there being one god is also talked about here. It is
dedicated to Rudra, the storm god, known as the 'howler'.
Kausitaki Brahmana Upanishad:- The Upanishad has come down to us in
bits here and pieces there. The core of the text is dedicated to
illustrating the fact that the path to release is through knowledge.
Maitri Upanishad
This is a comparatively later Upanishad and there are two main
reasons to believe this: first of all, it has references to the
Trinity of Hindu Gods (Shiva the destroyer, Vishnu the preserver and
Brahma the creator) which is a later development, and plus
references to the world being illusory in character reflects
Buddhist influence.
Subala Upanishad
Belonging to the Yajur-Veda, this Upanishad puts down a dialogue
between the sage Subala and Brahma the creator of the Hindu Trinity
of Gods. It discusses the universe and the absolute.
Jabala Upanishad Belonging to the Atharva-Veda this Upanishad
addresses some questions pertaining to renunciation.
Paingala Upanishad
The Paingala is again a dialog, this between Yajnavalkya, the sage
mentioned the Brhad-aranyaka's muni khanda and Paingala, a student
of his. It discusses meditation and its effects.
Kaivalya Upanishad
This Upanishad delves into the state of kaivalya or being alone.
Vajrasucika Upanishad
Belonging to the Sama-Veda the Vajrasucika reflects on the nature of
the supreme being.
The core of the teachings of the Upanishads is summed up in three
words: tat tvam as… you are that.
